In May of 2000, Israel withdrew from Southern Lebanon, leading to the Second Intifada, and two years later in 2002 Israel began the construction of the West Bank Barrier. In 2005 the Israelis were forcibly removed from Gaza as a result of “Israel’s Unilateral Disengagement Plan.” A year after Israel engaged in the Lebanon War, followed by the Palestinian Civil War in 2007. Conflicts continued throughout the years and leaving Jerusalem in a rocky state with an unpredictable future.
Thursday, March 17, 2011
20th Century Jerusalem: Lecture 17.1 - March 8, 2011
Lecture picked up at the end of last week’s lecture regarding Ottoman Jerusalem and we began a discussion of Zionism. Professor Cargill began by introducing Zionism as the idea that all Jews should go to Jerusalem. During the 19th century, Europeanization took place, marking the beginning of Secular “Zionist” immigration. This resulted in shifting demographic among the Muslim, Jewish, and Christian populations. Secular Zionism, based on a book written by Theodore Herzl, did not have much to do with the sacredness of Jerusalem and rather there existed a Zionist state in Uganda. In 1899, the first Zionist conference took place in Basel, Switzerland which Herzl claimed to have had the presence of the “Messiah the son of David.” In the advent of European nationalism, anti-Semitism and immigration increased. In 1914-1917 the Ottomans aligned with Germany against France and Britain during World War I. Jerusalem served as the headquarters for VIII Turkish Corps and the British soon take Palestine from the Ottomans after the establishment of the Balfour Declaration (1917). This assured the Jews a new National Homeland. This declaration was clarified in Winston Churchill’s “White Paper” considering there was confusion regarding whether Palestine would be a Jewish state and it was established that there would be a continuation of Jewish settlement in Palestine.
Because of this takeover of Palestine, tensions arose among the Arab and Jewish communities. Such conflict was settled in the Peel Commission of 1937 through an early “two state” solution. This meant there would be a partitioning of Palestine into a northern section that would be given to the Jews and the south would be given to the Arabs. This led to Jerusalem’s attainment of the title of an “international city.” This Peel Commission was approved by the United Nations in 1947 and was accepted by Zionists while rejected by Arabs. Consequently fighting broke out, leading to the War of Independence in 1948. In May of that year, the British left and a year later in 1949 a truce was arranged by the UN leading to the signing of an armistice between Israel and Jordan on March 16. A green line was created between Israel and the Jordanian held West Bank. The Israelis took the west, Jordanians took the East, and the Palestinians got nothing. “Catastrophe” took place as a result of the establishment of the Israel state and the assertion of Jordanian control of the West Bank. King Hussein declared Jerusalem the second capital of the State of Jordan in 1953. Several years later in the Six-Day War, 1967, Syria gains alliances from Lebanon, Jordan and Egypt to plan a preemptive attack of Israel. This resulted in Moshe Daen, a Jewish general, to grant Muslims the power and authority of the Haram and Jerusalem was annexed. The UN rejects this Israeli annexation, but the Israelis don’t care and they still take over.
Mamluk and Ottoman Jerusalem – Lecture 16.1 - March 3, 2011
Mamluk Jerusalem was essentially a grassroots movement of people who were not usually in control. During this period between 1250-1516, Jerusalem became a religious center, was used as a place of political exile, and was a time of intensive building of schools, hospices, and hostels. Crusader structures were used as quarries for stone, Crusader markets were enlarged, two new Mosques were built, and colonnaded madrasas (schools) were built around the Haram. Al-Madrasa al-Ashrafiyya was built in 1482 by Sultan al-Ashraf Qaitbey who reigned from 1468-1496. His reign was remarkable for the number of find buildings he erected – the madrasa specifically was refered to as the “third jewel of Jerusalem” after the Dome of the Rock and the Al-Aqsa Mosque. During this period, there was very unique architecture consisting of patterns of alternating red/white and black/white stone, as well as dome shapes, monumental entrances and muqarnas (a decorative technique inside domes and above entrances). Also, in 1267 during the growth of the Jewish quarter, Nachmanides makes an aliyah and develops Kabbalah (Jewish Mysticism).
Lecture continued on to cover Ottoman Jerusalem as well. This period spanned from 1516-1918 and began as a result of Selim I defeat of the Malmuks in 1517 at Maj-Dablik (Northern Syria). During the 16th century the Ottoman kingdom flourished and established a strong centralized government in Jerusalem. Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent reigned from 1520-1566, a time during which he repaired and enlarged aqueducts, rebuilt the walls of Jerusalem, carried out an extensive campaign to refurbish the Haram and its monuments, rebuilt and renovated the markets, and built the Khassaki Sultan complex which was a huge public charity for the people living in Jerusalem. His work in Jerusalem was equivalent to that of Mecca and Medina, making Jerusalem the third most important city to the faith of Islam.
Crusader Jerusalem: Lecture 15.1 - March 1, 2011
Today we had a guest lecturer in Professor Cargill’s absence and discussed Crusader Jerusalem. The emergence of Holy Roman Empire in Western Europe and the Great Schism along with the late reaction to persecution of Christian population of Jerusalem were factors that contributed to the Crusades. In 1095, Pope Urban II gave a speech calling upon the nobility in Western Europe and encouraging them to liberate. This proposed a situation of unintended consequences because no one was sure what would happen and the response of all the people who wanted to participate was significantly greater than what was anticipated. The first Crusade was also known as the Peasant’s Crusade because ill equipped peasants were slaughtered by the Turks. During this Crusade Jerusalem is conquered by Godfrey de Bouillon in 1099. He divided Jerusalem into four quarters: the Patriarch’s quarter where the Church of the Holy Sepulcher was, the Templar’s quarter, the Syrian quarter, and the Armenian quarter. This led to the modification of existing Islamic monuments (cross added to top of the Dome of the Rock), the rebuilding of ruined Byzantine churches, the rebuilding of the Holy Sepulcher in a Romanesque style, the establishment of Templars to protect pilgrims coming to Jerusalem, the conversion of the Al-Aqsa Mosque to Templar headquarters and a church, leading to a transformation of Jerusalem.
In the following year from the First Crusade, Baldwin became “King of Jerusalem” and led the Second Crusade which lasted 1147-1149. In1187 the Crusaders are conquered by Saladin. He gives the Holy Sepulcher to the Greeks and allows anybody who wants to leave to leave, however, if they stay they must obey his rule; he also led the purification and reclamation of the Haram, Temple Mount. But after his death, several other Crusades happened and resulted in the reestablishment of Crusaders in Jerusalem. Finally, in 1291, the Crusaders accomplished a successful defeat.
Islamic Jerusalem: Lecture 14.1 - February 24, 2011
Once Byzantine Jerusalem was coming to an end, it became evident that the Byzantine Christians did not take any actions in order to help the Jews who had been kept out of Jerusalem from the Herodian rule. However, during the taking of Palestine and Jerusalem between 614-628 CE by the Sasanians, Jews were allowed to resettle in Jerusalem for the first time since the end of the Bar-Kokhba Revolt which was in 135 CE. Because the prophet Muhammad did not leave an heir, Caliphs (delegates or representatives) were established in order to lead the Islamic community.
In 638 CE, the Muslim Caliph Umar takes Jerusalem and establishes a written agreement with the Christian community to prevent the Jews from resettling in Jerusalem. However, he later allowed the Jews to move back into the city, causing the Jewish population to steadily grow. Jerusalem began being referred to as Aeilia, the city of the Temple. The period between 638-750 CE becomes known as the Umayyad Dynasty. In this time Caliph Umar builds a wooden Mosque and Abd al-Malik builds the Dome of the Rock in 691 CE. The purpose of this was to divert pilgrimages from Mecca to Jerusalem because there was a rivalry with Zubayr. Jews and Christians also continued to pilgrimage to Jerusalem. The Dome of the Rock held many traditions that stemmed from Mt. Moriah, Solomon’s Temple and as an axis to Hell. The Al-Aqsa Mosque was built between 705-715 CE by Caliph Walid, the son of Abd al-Malik and was said to be a place where one prayer was the equivalent of five hundred elsewhere. In this lecture Professor Cargill also mentions the five pillars of Islam: Shahada – “testimony” or “witness”, Salat – prayer five times a day, Zakat – almsgiving to the needy, Sawm – fasting in the month of Ramadan, and Hajj – making the pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in one’s lifetime.
Professor Cargill finished up this part of lecture the following week and introduced the Abbasid Dynasty and the Fatimids. The Abbasid Dynasty took place between 750-969 CE and was a period of time where the goal was to wipe out any memory of any Umayyad accomplishments such as palaces. The Abbasid Caliph Al-Ma-Mun also took credit for the building of the Dome of the Rock but forgets to erase the date of the construction when doing so. In 965 CE, Muhammad al-Sanhajj, the governor of Jerusalem, kills John, the Patriarch of Jerusalem, demonstrating a slight increase in the hostility towards Christians. From 969-1099 there was a period of upheaval, yet the population of Jerusalem continued to steadily increase. Caliph al-Hakim ordered the destruction of all Jewish and Christian houses of prayer, including the Holy Sepulcher and in 1033 an earthquake led to immense damage of Jerusalem’s walls and the Dome of the Rock. Years later there was a massacring of thousands of Jerusalem’s inhabitants by the Seljuqs from 1070-1098 leading to the Fatimids 40-day siege on Jerusalem’s fortifications. They destroyed much of the city but were able to retake the city back from the Seljuqs.
Byzantine Jerusalem: 13.1 - February 22, 2011
After the Roman takeover, the empire begins growing rapidly, making the division of the Roman empire into east and west vital. In the west there were three people claiming to be Augustus, leading to the battle of Milvian Bridge in 312 CE where a man by the name of Constantine wins. Constantine has a vision of the first two letters of Christ and is told “in this sign you shall conquer.” Jesus comes and explains Constantine’s vision to him in a dream and as a result he decideds to become Christian and make it the religion of his empire. This leads Constantine to set up Christianity in order to unite his empire. In 313 CE Christianity is legalized in the Edict of Milan and begins a westward expansion throughout Jerusalem.
In 324 CE Constantine’s mother, Helena, came to Jerusalem to rededicate the Church of the Holy Sepulcher, making it the new axis mundi. Then, in 391 CE, Theodosius establishes Christianity as the state religion and Justinian’s built the Nea Church while expanding the city. Now Jerusalem was a center for both Judaism and Christianity, so both Jewish and Christian pilgrimages were being made to Jerusalem. This led to many similarities beginning to be seen among the myths of the Temple and the Church of the Holy Sepulcher.
Jerusalem in Revolt: Lecture 12.1 - January 17, 2011
After Herod, his Kingdom was divided among his three sons whose powers were much more limited than his. The Kingdom was divided regionally. Archelaus became the ethnarch of Judea, Herod Antipas became the tetrarch of Galilee and Perea and Herod Phillip became tetrarch of Iturea and Trachonitis right above the Sea of Galilee. As these regions stemmed further and further from Jerusalem, there was less Jewish culture and customs practiced. Gradually, rule shifted to Roman governors. Pontius Pilate became the ruler of Judea from 26-36 CE but he provoked the Jews and was ineffective. He tried Jesus and ordered his execution, but was soon recalled to Rome in 36 CE. The Roman governors in Jerusalem, between 6 – 66 CE, posed provocations from all sides and instigated growing internal Jewish conflict. In 66 CE, Jewish militants engage in open Revolt against Rome and the Roman governor of Syria, Mucianus was defeated. However, in 67 CE Vespasian is appointed to conquer Galilee Transjordan but in the Spring of 70 CE his son, Titus, takes charge and destroys the Temple on the 9th of Ab. This devastation led to the fleeing of Jewish holdouts to Masada, the southwestern shore of the Dead Sea, where many committed suicide. The first revolt is ended in 73 CE and Judea capta coins are made in order to further establish the Roman’s success and the Jewish defeat.
Sixty years later, there was the second revolt known as the “Bar-Kokhba Revolt.” It was led by Simon Bar-Kokhba who tried to embrace the idea of messianism in attempt to be a savior to the Jews. He referred to himself as a “Prince” because it was the greatest non-royal and non-priestly title he could possibly have. The revolt which lasted from 135-132 CE was unsuccessful and was ended by Roman emperor Hadrian. Hadrian banned circumcision and rebuilt Jerusalem as a Roman City (Aelia Capitolina) with a Temple to Jupiter on the Temple Mount. He also banned all Jews from the city and essentially kicked them out. This led to the building and development of Synagogues as an alternate form of worship other than the Temple which was now a center of worship for Jupiter. Synagogues established prayer as their form of sacrifice, had a shrine for the Torah in place of the Ark of the Covenant, and they were built on the highest place in town in order to be closer to heaven. Judaism was now transforming into a religion of the book.
Herodian Jerusalem: Lecture 11.1 - February 15, 2011
While the Hasmonean rulers Hyrrcanas and Aristobulus were getting distracted by fighting over rule, the Romans, lead by Pompey the Great, came and took over. Pompey the Great was responsible for the Abomination of Desolation in 63 BCE when he stepped into the Holy of Holies – an act deemed unfathomably wrong by any Jew. This essentially led to his desecration of the Temple. Pompey the Great then set up Herod as one of the local rulers – the local ruler of Galilee. Herod the Great was from Idumea and had been forcibly “Judaized” by the Hasmoneans meaning he was only half Jewish. During his reign from 37 – 4 BCE, he was very helpful in aiding the Romans by being their Client-King, but at the same time the Jews resented him. While he did accommodate the Jews by not defiling their Temple when besieging Jerusalem and engaged in numerous building projects (aqueducts, ports, theaters, etc) in which he employed Jewish workers as builders, they still saw him as superficially Jewish and were always afraid of him. On the other hand, he was a very impulsive dictator. It is a constant debate as to whether or not he was a good king, considering economically and religiously speaking he was a good king but at the same time he subdued his own people who were trying to revolt against he Romans.
The lecture continued on to an introduction of Jesus. Professor Cargill emphasized that there is absolutely no archaeological evidence for the existence of Jesus even though most scholars including atheists continue to acknowledge that he most likely existed – only few scholars doubt Jesus’ existence. Professor Cargill had also mentioned that the absence of evidence cannot be equated with the evidence of absence. This phrase really stood out to me and I thought summed up the lecture very well.
Hellenistic and Hasmonean Jerusalem: Lecture 9.1 and 10.1 - February 10, 2011
Hellenistic Jerusalem
In the Battle of Issus in 333 BCE the Greeks, who were led by Alexander the Great defeated Persia’s King Darius. As a result of this Jerusalem had not only been exposed to Persian influence, but now Greek too. After the Jews came back from exile they reestablished the Jewish Temple and Judaism, the High priest was returned and took control, there was a new understanding of Judaism compared to that of the First Temple, and there was a demise of monarchy. During this time known as the Hellenistic period, Josephus, a Roman historian and a Jew, was a rebellion leader until he was caught and claimed to be a prophet and that the Roman general who caught him would become emperor one day. Because his prediction was correct, his is not killed and instead writes Jewish history but through a very pro-Roman perspective. After the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BCE, there is another division of he Kingdom into Ptolemies (Egyptians) and Seleucids (Syrians). In 320 BCE Ptolemy I captures Jerusalem and then in 201 BCE Antiochus III of the Seleucids defeats Ptolemies and annexes Jerusalem and “Palestine” (territory of the Romans). This lecture also covered the various secular leaderships of the Priests throughout the different Persian Periods and the Hellenistic Period.
Hasmonean Jerusalem:
After a period of under Greek rule, the Conservative Jews began an open revolt. Lead by Judas Maccabaeus, the Maccabean Revolt employed guerrilla tactics that were superior to the Seleucid army. They were successful and regained control of Jerusalem and the Temple. They resumed the sacrificial system and established self-rule. This revolt gave rise to the Hasmonean Dynasty. The Hasmonean rulers ironically became more Hellenized and corrupt, by assuming the office of high priest as well as King. Also, they build “Solomon’s” Pools because when you build something new for the good of a city, you must try to tie it as far back as you can to legitimize rule. The Hasmoneans continued to do to their people what was done to them, by destructing and exiling native populations and implementing forced conversions of foreigners as well as the centrality of the Temple in Jerusalem.
Persian Jerusalem: Lecture 8.1 - February 8, 2011
This period was known as the “Second Temple Period” because it dealt with the rebuilding of the Temple all the way through to its destruction at the hands of the Romans. During the exile, the Prophet Ezekiel had a vision of the reemergence of God as a mobile entity and claimed that the Ark of the Covenant had wheels that made it a mobile shrine of God. The Persians came and conquered the Babylonians while all the Judeans were in exile. King Cyrus who was the leader of the Persians questioned why all these Jews were in Babylon and re-exiled the Jewish people back to Jerusalem. This was confirmed in the “Cyrus Cylinder” which was a clay cuneiform cylinder that announced a general return of Jews to their homeland. As a result of this the Jews referred to him as their “messiah” for saving them, even though he was not even of the same religion as them.
Josiah’s Jerusalem CONTINUED and Exile, Destruction, and Cognitive Dissonance: Lecture 6.2 and 7.1 - February 1, 2011
Josiah’s Jerusalem CONTINUED
Professor Cargill began lecture by talking about the Mezad Hashavyahu Ostracon, containing the Yavneh Yam letter. The Yavneh Yam letter discusses a violation of a rule regarding the returning of a worker’s garments after sundown from Exodus 22. The Ketef Hinnom amulets reference the Bible as well, showing another piece of evidence that demonstrates an increased need for literacy during the time. Also, both show that either knowledge was taken from biblical texts, such as laws found in the Yavneh Yam letter, or the laws stated and written in the Bible were documented after the time the Yavneh Yam letter was written.
Exile, Destruction, and Cognitive Dissonance
Professor Cargill made a quick transition to begin discussion of what was believed to be the end of Jerusalem based on the end of the Davidic line and the failed Promise to David. King Nebuchadnezzar led the Babylonian Exile which consequently caused the destruction of the Temple, the exile of all Jews to Babylon and completely shattered beliefs among all. The promise that there would be a king on the throne in Jerusalem forever, was gone. The promise that there would forever be a temple, a house of the Lord, was gone. The assertion that they were the chosen people and that Jerusalem was there land, was gone. As a result of this, cognitive dissonance began playing a rule in the way that the exiled people of Jerusalem began dealing with such tragedy. The concrete beliefs that they so adamantly believed were defied by reality and as a result they needed to reinterpret the events in relation to the texts to justify what happened. This lead to the new belief that God did not reside in the Temple and rather his name existed there.
Hezekiah and the Golden Age CONTINUED and Josiah’s Jerusalem: Lecture 5.2 and 6.1 - January 27, 2011
Hezekiah and the Golden Age CONTINUED
Under Hezekiah’s time in power, written rule became more important and authoritative than kings or rulers. Kings were subject to these rules as well. Professor Cargill then continued to discuss the term “messiah” which referred to an “anointed one” which was written in the book of Isaiah where Hezekiah is explicitly referred to as the “messiah.” The reason he was given such a noble and meaningful title was because he was able to hold of the Assyrian attack under Sennacherib. This failure to destroy Jerusalem was a clear depiction of the strength of the legacy of an inviolable Jerusalem. The belief that God would truly protect Jerusalem and would not let it be taken over. This led to King Hezekiah’s religious reform that constituted of uniting all the people to potentially prepare for a revolt against Assyria. He established this centralization of Jerusalem by enforcing one orthodoxy and one way to worship and one temple in Jerusalem – this was clear indication that he was preparing for rebellion.
Josiah’s Jerusalem: Centralization of Religion in Jerusalem
After Sennacherib’s invasion and Hezekiah’s rule ended, his son, Manasseh, came into power and basically undid all of the religious reforms that Hezekiah put into place. He helped expand and urbanize Jerusalem. After Manasseh, Josiah was installed at the age of eight. He was so young that royal advisors actually had to do all of the decision making. Because Josiah lacked charisma and power at such a young age, a new way needed to be found in order to build power. As a result of this rule under a text began developing. This law came to be the book of Deuteronomy and was referred to as “Deuteronomistic” reform (2 Kings 22: 23). This reform included only worship of Yahweh and no foreign Gods, the worship of God could only be in Jerusalem, the founding of the Book of the “Law” also known as the Torah and the demand that the reading of the Book be done. This made literacy increase in significance, leading to a negative image of those who did not know how to read or write. An example of this was the Lachish Letter 3, depicting the expectation that people could read and write.
Hezekiah’s Jerusalem – The Growth of the City: Lecture 5.1 - January 25, 2011
The “Golden Age” was established through the development and existence of the Temple under David and Solomon. During this era, the Northern tribes were not fond of David and Solomon and were always a bit different than the tribes of the South. After Solomon’s death, his son Rehoboam took over and was an even harsher ruler than his father. This led the Northern tribes to succeed, dividing the Kingdom into the North, “Israel” and the South, “Judah.” The North ended up establishing new places of worship which included Bethel and Tel Dan, while the South had Beer-Sheva and Tel Arad temple as well as Jerusalem included in its area. Then in 925 BCE, Pharaoh Shoshenq of Egypt invaded Jerusalem and according to 1 Kings 14: 25-26 he carried off all the treasures of Solomon’s Temple. Archaeological evidence for this occurrence can be found in an inscription in the Temple of Karnak in Egypt.
Fighting broke out between Israel and Judah. Judah teamed up with Syria while Israel joins forces with Assyria. Asa, King of Judah, and Ben-Hadad of Syria withstand assault from the north and pay for the help with gold from the Temple. Jehu, the King of Israel, becomes the vassal of Assyria and sends tribute from the Temple to Shalmaneser III in 841 BCE. This was don’t on the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III. In 754 BCE the rise of the Assyrian empire begins. Their takeover constituted of mass deportations, the expansion of Jerusalem to the Western Hill and urbanization, and the establishment of Aramaic in order to develop a global economy. This was until the Assyrians fell to the Babylonians in 609 BCE. After this, archaeological evidence proves that Hezekiah was preparing for a rebellion against Assyria. Such evidence comes from Hezekiah’s fortifying of Jerusalem, the building of Hezekiah’s tunnel for water supply, his administration and the LMLK seal impressions that taxed individuals in order to save food for preparation, and a fully walled city that must be put under siege.
David’s Jerusalem CONTINUED and Solomon’s Jerusalem: Lectures 3.3 and 4.1 - January 18, 2011
David’s Jerusalem
At last, it is during this lecture that David’s rule is covered and his role in Jerusalem. The primary topic of discussion was 2 Samuel 7 – The Promise to David. This biblical text depicts David’s interaction with the Lord regarding the building of a Temple and how this resulted in the establishment of God’s Promise to David. Initially, David shares that he wants to build a Temple around the Ark of the Covenant to be God’s House, but God rejects this offer and instead insists that he will build David a House and that David’s son will build him a house. In addition to building David a house, God makes two promises: that David’s legacy will be carried out by his sons and that his kingdom would be established forever. Though this promise would eventually be broken and the Davidic line eventually would come to an end, this is all further proof of where Jerusalem derives its sacredness from.
Solomon’s Jerusalem
The focus of this lecture is Solomon’s Jerusalem and the lack of archaeological evidence for the first temple because in ancient times, they packed down, tel, and rebuilt on top so any remains are buried and impossible to find. A lot of scholars who argue different views based on biblical texts and archaeological evidence claim David and Solomon did exist, but they were not as opulent as the Bible makes them out to be. Biblical literature, specifically 1 Kings 8: 12-21, shows that Solomon builds a house for the Ark, the Temple, which is a physical representation of the presence and existence of God. However, the Stepped Stone Structure/Millo are fragmentary evidence that could have potentially been the foundation for David’s palace. In 1 Kings 6-7 Solomon’s Temple is depicted to have two pillars, Boaz and Jachin, as well as a back room known as the Holy of Holies where the Ark was kept and other details that were unique to the temple. Archaeological evidence has been found from the same time period that serves as comparative evidence for the existence of Solomon’s Temple. Arad, Tel Ta’yinat, and ‘Ain Dara are all Temples from the same area which have characteristics that are just like the ones described of the Solomonic Temple.
David’s Jerusalem CONTINUED: Lecture 3.2 - January 18, 2011
Professor Cargill finished discussion of the Tel Dan Inscription and its significance and continued on to explain Warren’s Shaft. It was thought to have been used to access the water from the Gihon Spring in order to keep Jerusalem able to survive, considering water is one of the crucial necessities for the existence and survival of a city.
The anointing of Solomon was also covered in 1 Kings 1: 32-40 where Solomon was put on a royal donkey and led down the Gihon Spring, depicting how a king was anointed in ancient Jerusalem. Zechariah 9: 9-10 was also mentioned as a reflection on the coronation ceremony of Solomon. Professor Cargill also introduced the Ark of the Covenant during lecture as a wooden piece that is covered in gold. It served as a representation of the divine and was carried around but finally the decision was made to keep it in one place and build the Temple of Jerusalem around it.
Caananite Jerusalem and David's Jerusalem: Lecture 2.1 and 3.1 - January 13, 2011
Caananite Jerusalem
This lecture began with a background of the early settlements of Jerusalem. The main settlement factors include water (Gihon Spring), agriculture, and communication and trade (the Watershed Highway). This was during the Bronze Age when literary evidence came from the Bible, however, Jerusalem in its earliest was mentioned in non-Biblical texts such as the Execration Texts as well. These were texts that had the name of enemies written on them and then they were crushed in order to ritually curse the enemies. Such texts give us non-biblical evidence of Jerusalem (“Rusalimum”) as a city prior to Israelite occupation. Similarly, the Amarna Tablets were letters that were written from rulers in Canaan and Syria asking for financial help and protection from the Egyptians. Besides these non-biblical texts that serve as evidence of Jerusalem’s existence, fortifications such as the Pool Tower from the East and the “Fountain Gate” mentioned in Nehemiah are archaeological evidence of the city’s existence pre-David.
This lecture began with a background of the early settlements of Jerusalem. The main settlement factors include water (Gihon Spring), agriculture, and communication and trade (the Watershed Highway). This was during the Bronze Age when literary evidence came from the Bible, however, Jerusalem in its earliest was mentioned in non-Biblical texts such as the Execration Texts as well. These were texts that had the name of enemies written on them and then they were crushed in order to ritually curse the enemies. Such texts give us non-biblical evidence of Jerusalem (“Rusalimum”) as a city prior to Israelite occupation. Similarly, the Amarna Tablets were letters that were written from rulers in Canaan and Syria asking for financial help and protection from the Egyptians. Besides these non-biblical texts that serve as evidence of Jerusalem’s existence, fortifications such as the Pool Tower from the East and the “Fountain Gate” mentioned in Nehemiah are archaeological evidence of the city’s existence pre-David.
The discussion then shifted into biblical accounts of Jerusalem, with the earliest being “Abraham and Melchizedek” from Genesis 14: 17. In this text Jerusalem is referenced as Salem which comes to be associated with Jerusalem over time. Additionally, the biblical text of Joshua is mentioned for providing possible evidence that there were two kings before David’s rule. In Joshua 10 its mentioned that the Israelites wiped everyone out, but in another book of Joshua this claim is completely contradicted since it’s stated that the people of Judah were not able to drive out the Jebusites. Additionally, the book of Judges states that the Benjaminites did not drive out the Jebusites who lived in Jerusalem. This provides three different accounts of how the Israelites got to Jerusalem: conquest, immigration, or always there based on mixed ethnic origins.
David’s Jerusalem
This lecture focused on the archaeological evidence that has led scholars to question the existence of David and the fact that the David’s existence can only be accepted if one believes the texts of the Bible. Archaeological evidence was not found until the 19th century in the Tel Dan inscription. The Tel Dan inscription was an Aramaic inscription that bragged about all the people David conquered and demonstrates that there were people who considered themselves the people of the House of David. In addition to the Tel Dan Inscription are the “Millo” and “the stepped stone structure.” The “millo” used to be a step structure of the city of David and appeared to be a sort of retaining wall above the Gihon Spring. The “stepped stone structure” has been speculated to have supported the upper structure of David’s palace. These two structures as well as the Houses of Ahiel and Bullae are all archaeological findings that have characterized the beginning of the Iron Age and what was thought to be the time of King David.
So far in the class Professor Cargill has clearly provided two different sources of evidence in order to make his claims about early Jerusalem. Though some may serve as contradictory, a lot of it makes sense. At first I was a bit overwhelmed with the immensity of the information being taught, however, this balance of archaeological and literary evidence makes the topics much easier to understand. Additionally, it sparks one’s thoughts regarding which piece of information one thinks is the most valid in proving the occurrence of a specific event or the existence of a person.
Jerusalem as a Sacred Space: Lecture 1.2 - January 11, 2011
Today, the discussion about sacred spaces was continued and we delved deeper into what exactly consecrates a sacred space. A sacred space must be founded and then a tradition must be developed in order to make the space sacred. This concept of founding a space where God can be worshipped predates Jerusalem – the Ziggurats and the Babylon Creation Story were given as examples. Such spaces cannot be randomly chosen, but rather Gods are the only ones who are able to dictate where houses of worship are built and give instructions on what to build – require Divine decree. Examples are given from Revelation 21 and other biblical texts.
The lecture continued on to explain how the consecration of sacred spaces is accomplished through their attraction of stories, the reputation of the place, and the borrowed or historical stories of the site. Some of these include Genesis 2 which describes the Garden of Eden, 2 Chronicles 3 and Genesis 22 which explain Mt. Moriah and the story of the Akedah and Abraham’s attempted sacrifice of his son Isaac. All of these stories further provide evidence of Jerusalem’s holiness and its reputation as the center of the world. This concept of the center of the world is explained through the idea of an axis mundi which serves as a pillar connecting a place on earth and in the real world to that of the profane and divine.
Jerusalem as a Sacred Space: Lecture 1.1 - January 6, 2011
Professor Cargill began his first lecture by introducing Jerusalem as the center of three major faiths: Christianity, Judaism, and Islam and as a city that has been of importance for at least 3,000 years. We then began a discussion regarding what makes a sacred space and how a place becomes sacred. Two of the main reasons a place is deemed sacred include: the belief that something supernatural happened there and someone important was born there. In addition, the development of a sacred space requires places for the multitude of people making the pilgrimage to stay when visiting a shrine that commemorates the place. Trade routes are also important to sacred spaces.
The lecture continued with discussion of the city’s geography as well as the application of the criteria that make a sacred space to Jerusalem specifically. Jerusalem lies on a hill, which is said to contribute to Jerusalem’s holiness by making it closer to heaven. It is also separated by three valleys (The Kidron, Tyropean, and Hinnom) which serve as contradictory low points that are closer to death and farther from God. Big cities in the ancient world require fresh water, a trade route, and a hill for protection. Jerusalem had all of these with the help of Hezekiah’s tunnel which brought water from the Gihon Spring up to the city. Additionally, Professor Cargill went into detail about the expansion of the City of David in the west into four separate quarters – the Christian, Islamic, Jewish, and Armenian, with the Temple Mount which is often considered the fifth quarter. Lastly, it was mentioned in lecture that Jerusalem is a magnet for legends, stories, and history.
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